You might forgive Pollux if it feels disrespected. It’s the brightest star of Gemini – twice as bright as Castor, its “twin.” But the designation that’s most often used by astronomers is Beta Geminorum. And the Greek letter “Beta” usually is applied to a constellation’s runner-up. That naming system was created by German astronomer Johann Bayer, in 1603. He used the Greek alphabet to name most of the stars in a constellation. Usually, the brightest star was given the first letter, Alpha. The next-brightest was Beta, and so on. But in some cases, Bayer switched things up. He labeled the stars based on their location in the constellation’s classical outline, or on some other category. So for Gemini, Pollux became the “Beta” star even though it’s clearly brighter than “Alpha.” Pollux really is an impressive star. It’s moved into the red-giant phase of life. In fact, it’s the closest red giant to the Sun, at a distance of just 34 light-years. It’s puffed up to about nine times the diameter of the Sun, so it shines almost 40 times brighter than the Sun. And it has a distinctively orange tint – a beautiful look for an impressive star. Pollux and Castor line up to the upper left of the Moon at nightfall this evening. Pollux is closer to the Moon. The planet Jupiter is farther to the upper right of the Moon. Jupiter outshines all the true stars in the night sky – even the brightest light of Gemini. Script by Damond Benningfield

If you head for orbit around Jupiter, you might want to take along your dust mop. Wide but thin rings encircle the planet. And they’re made of tiny particles of dust. Jupiter’s rings are nothing like the magnificent set that encircles Saturn. The rings are so faint, in fact, that they weren’t discovered until 1979, when the Voyager 1 spacecraft flew close to Jupiter. The system consists of four main rings. The inner ring, known as the halo, contains especially tiny particles, like a thin haze. The particles in the main ring are a little larger, but still quite small. And the two outer rings – known as gossamer rings – are wide and thick, but still don’t add up to much. The particles that make up the rings probably were chipped off of some the small moons that orbit close to Jupiter. Chunks of ice and rock slam into the moons, blasting out clouds of debris. The particles in the rings spiral into Jupiter quickly – within hundreds or thousands of years. So the rings are being constantly replenished by more impacts – adding to the dusty environment around the solar system’s largest planet. Jupiter teams up with the Moon and the twins of Gemini tonight. The planet looks like a brilliant star below the Moon at nightfall. It’s far brighter than any of the true stars. Gemini’s twins – the stars Castor and Pollux – line up to the lower left of the Moon. More about this beautiful grouping tomorrow. Script by Damond Benningfield

The first solar flare ever observed was also by far the biggest yet seen. But such a monster storm will happen again. And when it does, it’s unlikely that even a single spacecraft in Earth orbit will come out unscathed. And many could be destroyed. The benchmark storm so far was the Carrington Event. It was observed by British astronomer Richard Carrington, in 1859. He saw a brilliant flash of light erupt from a dark sunspot. The eruption produced beautiful displays of the northern and southern lights. It also zapped telegraph wires, disrupting transmissions and even starting fires in some stations. Scientists at the European Space Agency recently simulated what would happen to satellites if such a monster storm hit us today. They concluded that it would be bad – really bad. Over a period of about a day, GPS systems would fail. Satellite instruments would glitch or fail, entire satellites would be destroyed, and some ground stations would be knocked out. Earth’s outer atmosphere would expand dramatically, dragging satellites down. That would increase the risk of collisions, and reduce the time in orbit for any survivors. Operators can take some actions to protect their satellites. But that requires good forecasts of space weather. And future satellites could be equipped with better shielding. Even with those precautions, though, no satellite would be unaffected by the fury of a monster storm on the Sun. Script by Damond Benningfield

Anything that’s in Earth orbit faces the constant threat of radiation – energy and charged particles from the Sun and beyond. It can cause instruments to glitch or fail, and even destroy a satellite. And it poses a health risk for astronauts. The threat is greatest in a zone in the southern hemisphere – the South Atlantic Anomaly. It covers several million square miles above South America and South Atlantic Ocean. It’s a weak spot in Earth’s magnetic field that allows intense radiation to penetrate closer to the surface. And it’s getting bigger. The magnetic field can deflect many of the charged particles that bombard our planet. That protects orbiting satellites and astronauts. It also protects the surface from power blackouts and other effects. But the field is offset a bit from the center of the planet. It extends a little farther into space in some regions, but dips closer to the surface in others. And the South Atlantic Anomaly is the biggest dip of all. Spacecraft that are passing through the region often have to switch off some of their instruments to protect them from the harsh radiation. A recent study found that the anomaly has gotten bigger over the past decade – by about half the area of continental Europe. So the space above that part of Earth is getting nastier – a bigger “danger zone” in the southern hemisphere. We’ll have more about radiation hazards tomorrow. Script by Damond Benningfield

To the eye alone, the Pleiades cluster looks like a small dipper of about seven stars – a few more if you have nice, dark skies. But when Galileo Galilei looked at it with his first small telescope, he saw a few dozen stars. It was one of the first indications that there’s far more to the universe than meets the eye. You can share Galileo’s view with a basic pair of binoculars – no telescope required. They’re especially helpful tonight because of the Moon. It passes through the outskirts of the cluster, so it points the way. But the moonlight makes it tougher to see the stars. The Pleiades is a family of perhaps a couple of thousand stars. The stars were all born together, from the same cloud of gas and dust. That makes the cluster a good laboratory. Since the stars all started with the same mix of elements, any differences among them are the result of their evolution – changes within the stars themselves. That helps astronomers understand how all stars change over the eons. The cluster probably is a little more than a hundred million years old. That means it’s completed only about half an orbit around the center of the galaxy. During that time, it’s lost many of its original stars. And before it can complete one full orbit from its current location, it’s likely to evaporate – pulled apart by the gravitational tug of the rest of the galaxy. Tomorrow: a growing “danger zone.” Script by Damond Benningfield

Stars aren’t always nice to their offspring – especially at the end. As a star dies, it expands. It can get big enough to engulf some of its planets. The Sun, for example, is likely to swallow Mercury and Venus, and might get Earth as well. A star in Cygnus might have engulfed one of its planets fairly recently. Two others might be doomed as well. Kepler-56 isa red giant – a dying star that’s much bigger than the Sun. It has three known giant planets. Two of them are quite close in, so they may not survive the star’s final act. Kepler-56 is rotating much faster than most red giants. And vibrations at the surface reveal that its core and its outer layers are spinning at different rates and angles. There are several possible reasons for this odd behavior. One is the gravitational influence of the close-in planets. Another is that the star might have swallowed a planet early on. A recent study suggested something else: The star might have swallowed a planet fairly recently. The planet would have been about as massive as Jupiter, the giant of our own solar system. As it plunged in, its orbital momentum spun the star up. So Kepler-56 isn’t being kind to its offspring as its own life comes to an end. Kepler-56 is in the east-northeast at dawn. It’s half way between Deneb, Cygnus’s brightest star, and even brighter Vega. But Kepler-56 is too faint to see without a telescope. Script by Damond Benningfield

Things sometimes flash in the night sky. That includes some weird and wonderful astronomical objects. Some of them shine for a few minutes or even seconds, then vanish. So it can be tough to understand just what caused them. Thousands of these “transients” showed up in a decade-long look at the night sky. And a recent study found a statistical link between some of those transients and both nuclear weapons tests and reports of UFOs. The study analyzed thousands of nights of observations by the Palomar Sky Survey. From 1949 to 1958, astronomers repeatedly photographed the night sky on glass plates, looking to compile the best map of the heavens to date. Many of the plates revealed transients that were star-like pinpoints of light. They appeared out of nowhere, then disappeared just as quickly. The study found that, on average, the number of transients was greater on nights just after above-ground nuclear explosions. And there were more reports of UFOs on nights with more transients. There are many possible explanations. There could be problems with the original plates, for example. The nukes could’ve created some previously unknown effects in the atmosphere. The study also says the flashes could have been metallic objects far above our planet – perhaps even visitors from other worlds. But many scientists say we need a much more thorough look at the pictures before we’ll know what caused these flashes in the night sky. Script by Damond Benningfield

Long-term missions to the Moon and Mars will need a good understanding of the machines, the environment – and the people. Friction among crew members could make a mission much less productive – or even endanger lives. To minimize the risk, scientists are trying to understand how people get along during long periods of isolation. They’ve conducted test runs in laboratories. They’ve set up habitats on volcanoes and remote islands. They’ve studied research bases in Antarctica. And they’ve sent volunteers into the oceans. As with space travel, an undersea habitat is isolated and cramped, and the environment can be deadly. So it’s important for the crew to get along. NASA has conducted quite a few underwater expeditions. For many of them, astronauts spent a few days or weeks in a habitat off the coast of Florida. They conducted experiments both inside and outside the lab. They tested equipment and techniques that might be used in space. And scientists checked out how well they worked as a team. Recently, the European Space Agency sent 25 volunteers on a two-month trip aboard a submarine. Scientists used questionnaires to check on the volunteers. They also took samples of hair and saliva. The results helped track stress markers, changes in the immune system, and other reactions – better understanding the human factor in long-term missions to other worlds. Script by Damond Benningfield

If you stepped off a spacecraft onto the surface of Titan, you might experience a little dŽjˆ vu. Saturn’s largest moon has many of the same features as Earth. That includes rivers and seas, clouds, and even rainfall – it’s the only world in the solar system other than Earth with bodies of liquid on its surface. What wouldn’t seem familiar is the temperature – almost 300 degrees below zero Fahrenheit. In that icebox, water is frozen as hard as granite. So Titan’s rivers and seas and clouds are made of liquid methane and ethane. Titan is a large world – about half-again the diameter of our moon. And it has the densest atmosphere of any moon in the solar system; the surface pressure is equivalent to a depth of 50 feet in Earth’s oceans. The methane and ethane are quickly broken apart by sunlight, so the supply in the air has to be renewed. The most likely source is cryo-volcanoes – volcanoes that belch frozen water. Methane mixed with the water would waft into the atmosphere. The volcanoes could be fed by an ocean of liquid water below the surface – perhaps much more water than in all of Earth’s oceans combined. Both the ocean and the liquid bodies on the surface are possible homes for microscopic life – one more similarity to our own world. Saturn looks like a bright star near the Moon this evening. Through good binoculars or a small telescope, Titan looks like a tiny star quite near the planet. Script by Damond Benningfield

The planet Mercury is putting in a decent appearance in the evening sky now. It looks like a bright star low in the west during twilight. And tonight it has a prominent companion: the crescent Moon. In fact, they’ll look like they’re almost touching each other. Mercury is tough to see because it’s the closest planet to the Sun. Because of that, it never moves far from the Sun in our sky. At best, it’s visible for an hour or two after sunset or before sunrise. Right now, it’s farthest from the Sun in the evening sky. For a few nights, it won’t set until about an hour and 20 minutes after sunset. As twilight begins to fade, though, it’s so low in the sky that you’ll need a clear horizon to spot it. The Moon is just a day and a half past “new,” when it crossed between Earth and the Sun. So the Sun illuminates only a tiny fraction of the lunar hemisphere that faces our way. The rest of the disk will be faintly highlighted by earthshine – sunlight reflected from Earth. That will enhance the beauty of this duo in the fading twilight. Two other planets are close by. Saturn is to the upper right of Mercury and the Moon, and looks like a fairly bright star. Venus is heaving into view below them. It’s much brighter than Mercury, but much lower, making it tougher to pick out. But Venus will climb higher over the coming weeks – blazing as the “evening star.” More about the Moon and Saturn tomorrow. Script by Damond Benningfield